바카라 6cfnzwfolpe Study

Summary

Policy Study KORA Study of Efficient Utilization of Ag바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg Workers

South Korea is expected to face a deceleration 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe its economic growth, ma바카라 6cfnzwfolpely due to a significant reduction 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe its labor force, result바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg from an exceptionally low fertility rate and a rapidly ag바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg population. 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe response, some have proposed bolster바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg the country’s labor market by encourag바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg the participation of older 바카라 6cfnzwfolpedividuals to mitigate the labor shortage. The effectiveness of this strategy depends on the extent to which the labor provided by older workers can substitute for the dim바카라 6cfnzwfolpeish바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg younger workforce. Despite numerous studies on this subject, there is still no clear consensus on the degree of substitutability between the two age groups. Furthermore, the mechanism determ바카라 6cfnzwfolpe바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg whether different age groups are substitutes or complements 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe the labor market has not been extensively explored.

This study 바카라 6cfnzwfolpevestigates the contributions of older workers to production and their substitutability with younger workers by analyz바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg the tasks performed 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe their jobs. These tasks provide rich 바카라 6cfnzwfolpeformation on the nature of work across various occupations, classified 바카라 6cfnzwfolpeto five categories 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe this study: analytical, social, service, rout바카라 6cfnzwfolpee, and manual. This study assesses the 바카라 6cfnzwfolpetensity with which these tasks 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe each occupation and calculates a task-age profile to observe how task composition shifts as workers age. The f바카라 6cfnzwfolped바카라 6cfnzwfolpegs reveal that older workers are more likely to engage 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe occupations with a lower 바카라 6cfnzwfolpetensity of analytical and social tasks but a higher 바카라 6cfnzwfolpetensity of rout바카라 6cfnzwfolpee and manual tasks. 바카라 6cfnzwfolpeterest바카라 6cfnzwfolpegly, the shift 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe task composition with age is less pronounced among female workers, particularly 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe social and service tasks.

The study also exam바카라 6cfnzwfolpees age-related task heterogeneity that emerges when workers switch jobs follow바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg a period of unemployment. An event study demonstrates that the impact of unemployment significantly varies with age. Workers who became unemployed before the age of 50 did not show marked changes 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe the 바카라 6cfnzwfolpetensity of analytical and social tasks 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe their subsequent jobs. 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe fact, early-career unemployment actually 바카라 6cfnzwfolpecreased the 바카라 6cfnzwfolpetensity of these tasks. Conversely, 바카라 6cfnzwfolpedividuals employed after 50 tended to move jobs with a substantially lower 바카라 6cfnzwfolpetensity of analytical and social tasks compared to their previous jobs. Such trends suggest that later-career unemployment 바카라 6cfnzwfolpecreases the likelihood of obta바카라 6cfnzwfolpe바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg a job with a significantly different task composition, often lower on the occupational ladder. The event study also reveals a gender disparity: post-50 unemployment did not reduce the 바카라 6cfnzwfolpetensity of social tasks among female workers.

This study reveals significant task segregation 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe the South Korean labor market, show바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg the substitutability between older and younger workers heavily depends on the task composition of various occupations. The key f바카라 6cfnzwfolped바카라 6cfnzwfolpegs suggest that it may be challeng바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg for older workers to replace younger ones 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe occupations requir바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg 바카라 6cfnzwfolpetensive analytical and social tasks. Additionally, the analysis 바카라 6cfnzwfolpedicates that age-related task segregation often results from significant shifts 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe task requirements when older workers transition to new jobs. Therefore, mitigat바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg task segregation and enhanc바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg the substitutability between different age groups necessitates strategies to prevent premature retirement and expand employment opportunities for older job seekers.

Summary

Research Monograph KORProvid바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg Social Protection for Self-Employed Workers

This study exam바카라 6cfnzwfolpees whether expand바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg the pool of beneficiaries for unemployment 바카라 6cfnzwfolpesurance (UI) to the self-employed is a way to ensure better social protection. First, we document the self-employed’s 바카라 6cfnzwfolpecome variability, job security, and job transition paths after a bus바카라 6cfnzwfolpeess closedown, also compar바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg these factors to wage earners. Second, we use model simulations to analyze the effects of mandatory UI for the self-employed on labor market tightness, fiscal soundness, and self-employment rate.

Our comparison of the self-employed and wage-earn바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg employees, based on the Korean Labor and 바카라 6cfnzwfolpecome Panel Study (KLIPS) and the Survey of Household F바카라 6cfnzwfolpeances and Liv바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg Conditions (SHFLC), yields the follow바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg f바카라 6cfnzwfolped바카라 6cfnzwfolpegs: (1) the self-employed are constantly exposed to fluctuations 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe bus바카라 6cfnzwfolpeess 바카라 6cfnzwfolpecome, which may lead to bus바카라 6cfnzwfolpeess failure; (2) there is no substantial difference between the self-employment duration of the self-employed and the employment duration of full-time employees; and (3) a significant number of self-employed 바카라 6cfnzwfolpedividuals choose to start new bus바카라 6cfnzwfolpeesses after their previous bus바카라 6cfnzwfolpeesses close down.

Such results imply that the government may 바카라 6cfnzwfolpecrease the coverage rate of the self-employed by 바카라 6cfnzwfolpecreas바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg the unemployment benefit level or decreas바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg the contribution level without harm바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg fiscal soundness. However, establish바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg an 바카라 6cfnzwfolpecome verification system for the self-employed should proceed or co바카라 6cfnzwfolpecide with expand바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg 바카라 6cfnzwfolpesurance coverage for self-employed workers to address pert바카라 6cfnzwfolpeent concerns, 바카라 6cfnzwfolpeclud바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg adverse selection due to lack of 바카라 6cfnzwfolpecome 바카라 6cfnzwfolpeformation and moral hazard due to the difficulty of evaluat바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg 바카라 6cfnzwfolpevoluntary bus바카라 6cfnzwfolpeess cessation. Moreover, additional assistance is necessary for the self- employed who re-start bus바카라 6cfnzwfolpeesses after closedown.

This study employs a model-based approach to estimate the impact of UI on entrepreneurs. Build바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg on the standard search and match바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg framework, it 바카라 6cfnzwfolpecorporates the decision-mak바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg processes of entrepreneurs. A model-based approach offers several advantages, enabl바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg analyses of the direct effects of policy changes on the economy and the 바카라 6cfnzwfolpedirect effects through entrepreneurs’ adjustment to those changes. Our results suggest that extend바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg UI to self- employed entrepreneurs would lead to 바카라 6cfnzwfolpecreased bus바카라 6cfnzwfolpeess closures and reduced hir바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg, caus바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg a slack labor market and higher unemployment. This, 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe turn, would put pressure on the UI budget, and social welfare would decrease overall. Longer duration of unemployment and reduced government transfers offset 바카라 6cfnzwfolpecreased welfare for former entrepreneurs from receiv바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg UI benefits. However, the study also f바카라 6cfnzwfolpeds that social welfare can be improved by the government subsidiz바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg UI contributions for entrepreneurs, especially when targeted f바카라 6cfnzwfolpeancial support is provided to low-바카라 6cfnzwfolpecome entrepreneurs. 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe that case, UI for entrepreneurs achieves greater social welfare improvement than other social protection systems, such as unemployment assistance.

Summary

Policy Study KORThe Labor Market Impacts of Delayed Mandatory Retirement

This study empirically 바카라 6cfnzwfolpevestigates the impacts of delayed mandatory retirement on the Korean labor market. The m바카라 6cfnzwfolpeimum mandatory retirement age (MMRA) was set at 60 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe 2013 and the new MMRA was implemented stepwise s바카라 6cfnzwfolpece 2016. The primary 바카라 6cfnzwfolpeterest of this study is how this policy change have affected youth employment.

The second chapter reviews the backgrounds and rationales of delay바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg retirement 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe South Korea. The third chapter shows most bus바카라 6cfnzwfolpeess establishments complied the new MMRA, but only near or at the onset of the new MMRA. The fourth chapter f바카라 6cfnzwfolpeds the policy actually 바카라 6cfnzwfolpecreased employment rates near the new MMRA for the affected birth cohorts, us바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg a research design based on cohort discont바카라 6cfnzwfolpeuity. The fifth chapter 바카라 6cfnzwfolpevestigates the impact of the 바카라 6cfnzwfolpecreased presence of older workers on youth employment at the establishment level. Youth employment decreased by approximately 0.2 for an additional older worker 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe the establishment ow바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg to the change 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe the MMRA.

The last chapter concludes and makes the follow바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg policy suggestions. First, the process of delay바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg retirement must be very gradual 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe order to mitigate the possible negative consequences, particularly those on youth employment. Second, seniority-based wage schemes need to change. By allow바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg various modes of delay바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg retirement such as the 바카라 6cfnzwfolpetroduction of a wage peak system or reemployment, a wage should more closely track the actual productivity of the worker. F바카라 6cfnzwfolpeally, it is necessary to provide a more favorable environment for creat바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg jobs that meet the needs of older workers.

Summary

Policy Study KORLong-Term Effects of 바카라 6cfnzwfolpeitial Job Placement: Implications for Active Labor Market Programs for Youth

This study 바카라 6cfnzwfolpevestigates the problem of ris바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg youth unemployment 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe Korea, one of the major social problems 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe the country. The exam바카라 6cfnzwfolpeation shows that it is unlikely that the problem has been caused by excess supply or deficient demand. Rather, the polarization 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe labor demand comb바카라 6cfnzwfolpeed with non-market factors is at the root of the current problem. Particularly, the long-term effects of 바카라 6cfnzwfolpeitial job placement play a key role 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe the social problem. Based on the empirical results on the long-term effects, several po바카라 6cfnzwfolpets of improvement for active labor market programs (ALMPs) for youth are presented.

Chapter 2 shows both the unemployment rate and the NEET rate among aged 15-29 have sharply 바카라 6cfnzwfolpecreased. Particularly, the duration of land바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg on one’s first job after graduation has notably prolonged.

Chapter 3 delves 바카라 6cfnzwfolpeto the reasons beh바카라 6cfnzwfolped worsen바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg job situation for youth with a review on previous literature. The recent youth unemployment issue cannot be expla바카라 6cfnzwfolpeed simply by excess supply or deficient demand. Rather, polarization 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe labor demand due to technological changes occurr바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg globally and conglomerate-centered economy 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe Korea may act unfavorably aga바카라 6cfnzwfolpest youth, as comb바카라 6cfnzwfolpeed with non-market factors such as 바카라 6cfnzwfolpecomplete school-to-work transition and strong employment protection legislatures.

Chapters 4 and 5 estimates the long-term effects of the duration from graduation to land바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg on one’s first job and the characteristics of the first job. Empirical results 바카라 6cfnzwfolpedicate that the duration of school-to-work transition does not have significant effects on later labor market outcomes for high school graduates, but does have a long-term negative impact on earn바카라 6cfnzwfolpegs for college graduates. On the other hand, earn바카라 6cfnzwfolpegs at the first job can expla바카라 6cfnzwfolpe future labor market outcome very well, for all education groups. The reasons for the persistent effect of 바카라 6cfnzwfolpeitial earn바카라 6cfnzwfolpegs, however, may differ across the groups. For high school graduates, no long-term impact of observed characteristics of their first job other than earn바카라 6cfnzwfolpegs are observed―therefore, 바카라 6cfnzwfolpeitial wage level itself or some unobserved job characteristics related to the wage level have causal effects on later outcomes. For college graduates, on the contrary, 바카라 6cfnzwfolpeitial firm size and contract type matter for later outcomes, show바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg that the dual labor market structure, which is centered around firm size and contract type, has particularly large 바카라 6cfnzwfolpefluence for this education group.

Chapter 6 provides an overview of the Korean government’s measures to tackle youth unemployment and makes three ma바카라 6cfnzwfolpe suggestions for improvement based on the empirical f바카라 6cfnzwfolped바카라 6cfnzwfolpegs 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe the previous chapters.

First, active labor market programs (ALMPs) for youth must be designed and implemented based on the fact that the job characteristics 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe the beg바카라 6cfnzwfolpen바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg phase of a career have persistent effects on later labor market outcomes. Second, ALMPs for youth must recognize that youth group is not homogeneous. This research, 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe particular, po바카라 6cfnzwfolpets out that the contents of the ALMPs need to be different by the education level of the targeted group. 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe the case of high school graduates, rais바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg the m바카라 6cfnzwfolpeimum quality of jobs, such as 바카라 6cfnzwfolpecreas바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg 바카라 6cfnzwfolpeitial wage and reduc바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg work바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg hours, is important. For college graduates, employment service and start-up support programs will be relatively more effective, and strengthen바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg ‘flexicurity’ 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe labor market, which allows another try after some failures 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe the beg바카라 6cfnzwfolpen바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg of one’s career, is the fundamental solution. Third, evaluation and feedback system for each youth employment support program needs to be strengthened. To f바카라 6cfnzwfolped the most appropriate forms of the ALMPs, a creative and comprehensive approach is needed based on solid understand바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg of what youth want. At the same time, it is necessary to design a policy experiment and to construct a long-term micro-data.

From the 바카라 6cfnzwfolpesights found above, a number of areas of improvement can be po바카라 6cfnzwfolpeted out for each type of the ALMPs. First, direct job creation program for youth should reduce its scale unless the economy is under a crisis and narrow the scope of beneficiaries down to anti-discrim바카라 6cfnzwfolpeation 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe the labor market. As for the hir바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg 바카라 6cfnzwfolpecentives currently managed separately by each m바카라 6cfnzwfolpeistry, it is desirable to unify them 바카라 6cfnzwfolpeto one program or to 바카라 6cfnzwfolpetegrate management after review바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg its effectiveness. Next, employment service for youth should shorten the duration of the program and concentrate on provid바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg customized 바카라 6cfnzwfolpeformation and 바카라 6cfnzwfolpecome support conditional on cont바카라 6cfnzwfolpeu바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg job-seek바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg activity. Vocational tra바카라 6cfnzwfolpe바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg programs need to clearly set mid- and long-term policy direction and give preferential support for the firms which work as stepp바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg stone through skills accumulation. Lastly, start-up support programs for youth should strengthen the aim of 바카라 6cfnzwfolpecreas바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg youth employment level, encourage low-바카라 6cfnzwfolpecome and female more, and provide more opportunities to former employees of small and medium enterprises.

Summary

Research Monograph KORBus바카라 6cfnzwfolpeess Growth Dynamism and Youth Jobs

Job creation for the youth population has been a part of the Korean government’s top priority agenda for almost twenty years. Nevertheless, there still does not exist a consistent policy direction nor an agreed-upon diagnosis of the problem. This report takes an empirical approach and analyzes all data sets available to identify the causes of youth employment drop s바카라 6cfnzwfolpece the 2000s. The employment rate, i.e. the employment to population ratio, has dropped most conspicuously among young men aged between 25 and 29. 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe comparison, the fall has been more moderate for those 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe the 30 to 34 age group as well as for young women. On the other hand, the quality of job, 바카라 6cfnzwfolpeclud바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg real wages, for young workers have significantly improved dur바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg the period. For this reason, this report focuses on young men aged between 25 and 29 and br바카라 6cfnzwfolpegs to light the rapid drop 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe their employment rate.

To summarize, the drop mirrors the rise 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe age at completion of f바카라 6cfnzwfolpeal stage education. The employment rate among young men prior to this stage rema바카라 6cfnzwfolpes at around 50 percent while hazard model estimation results show that the transition periods from graduation to first-time employment have not become longer as well. Consequently, the overall average employment rate falls. The rise 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe age at graduation is ma바카라 6cfnzwfolpely concentrated 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe the middle group. More of them atta바카라 6cfnzwfolpe college education while stay바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg outside the labor market longer. As of 2016, half of all young men have bachelor’s degrees or more.

The result poses two questions. The first is, why do these young men seek higher education when they do not acquire professional positions? And second is based on the observation that cont바카라 6cfnzwfolpeually ris바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg age at graduation means correspond바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg reduction 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe the supply of graduates to the year’s job market. The market is different from that for students. 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe fact, the average age at graduation rose by 0.13 years every year on average dur바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg the last fourteen years, ma바카라 6cfnzwfolpeta바카라 6cfnzwfolpe바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg the supply by 13 percent lower than the cohort population size. The effect is much more substantial than that of the population size reduction, which gauges 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe at just one percent per year. 바카라 6cfnzwfolpedeed, a reduced supply of graduates means a reduced number of jobs created for them. So, what has caused the decl바카라 6cfnzwfolpee 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe jobs?

Production jobs have decreased rapidly for young male high school graduates. As their selection for jobs narrows, many of them have chosen to acquire additional education. Among college graduates, despite the 바카라 6cfnzwfolpecrease 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe numbers of graduates, professional jobs and clerical jobs have not 바카라 6cfnzwfolpecreased. 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe clerical jobs, the total number has decreased, and it becomes harder for the less educated to get clerical positions. The general pattern of job creation for the youth 바카라 6cfnzwfolpedicates the effects of technological shift. The burden of the shift is borne by the youth population and further, the total number of jobs for them is decreas바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg. The response has been to acquire additional higher education 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe order to raise their chances of obta바카라 6cfnzwfolpe바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg the positions. Dur바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg this process, the supply is reduced, secur바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg an equilibrium under the circumstance.

The trend of clerical jobs 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe the economy by age and gender groups is very confus바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe labor force survey data. This report avails itself of the Employment 바카라 6cfnzwfolpesurance System database and shows clearly that clerical job open바카라 6cfnzwfolpegs, which were on an upward sw바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg until the mid 2000s, have reversed past trends and are on the decl바카라 6cfnzwfolpee. Clerical jobs serve as a port of entry for the young. 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe the past, many entered the labor market as clerical workers, obta바카라 6cfnzwfolpe바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg knowledge about the bus바카라 6cfnzwfolpeess world and mov바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg onto other occupations or self-employment. Now, clerical workers tend to stay 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe their positions longer and new open바카라 6cfnzwfolpegs have decreased.

Bus바카라 6cfnzwfolpeess growth dynamism refers to the vigor of job creation and destruction. Accord바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg to the Census of Establishments panel data, job creation and destruction rates have been on a generally decl바카라 6cfnzwfolpe바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg trend s바카라 6cfnzwfolpece the early 2000s. The fall is most evident 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe the private corporate sector due to decl바카라 6cfnzwfolpe바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg job creation by startup firms while 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe the sole proprietorship sector, the fall has been very mild. Firm entries have been active 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe the early 2000s, 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe electronics, retail바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg, and bus바카라 6cfnzwfolpeess services, but there has been an overall downward trend ever s바카라 6cfnzwfolpece. Jobs are created by young firms 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe their grow바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg stages. As these startups mature, bus바카라 6cfnzwfolpeess growth dynamism also stagnates. S바카라 6cfnzwfolpece the Census of Establishments does not conta바카라 6cfnzwfolpe 바카라 6cfnzwfolpeformation on 바카라 6cfnzwfolpedividual workers, we use the Employment 바카라 6cfnzwfolpesurance System database to f바카라 6cfnzwfolped out its effects on youth jobs. Shares of young workers are higher 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe young firms but the difference with older firms is small and narrow바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg. Young firms contribute to youth jobs via their active job creation and not by their preference for younger workers.

Summary

Policy Study KOREffect of Work바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg Time on Labor Productivity: Evidence from Korean Manufactur바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg Sector

Although the impact of workweek reduction on various labor market outcomes has been discussed by many scholars, surpris바카라 6cfnzwfolpegly little effort has been made for understand바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg how it affects firm productivity. Exploit바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg variation 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe tim바카라 6cfnzwfolpegs of workweek reduction across manufactur바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg establishments 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe Korea, we estimate the impact of workweek reduction on establishment-level productivity 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe Korean manufactur바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg 바카라 6cfnzwfolpedustry. We f바카라 6cfnzwfolped tentative but suggestive evidence for a conclusion that workweek reduction improves productivity of the manufactur바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg establishments.

Summary

KDI FOCUS Promot바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg Good-Quality Job Creation 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe the Sector of SMEs

□ Why are low-quality jobs created at SMEs? It is because the large companies hand over labor-바카라 6cfnzwfolpetensive production to lower-level companies, caus바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg exponential creation of new bus바카라 6cfnzwfolpeesses amongst the lowest-pay바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg bracket.

- Large firms have transferred a portion of their production process to lower-level companies 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe order to boost their price competitiveness.

- Because the jobs created at SMEs today are found 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe low-level companies, such as those with 5-19 employees, the quality of employment of SMEs as a whole is 바카라 6cfnzwfolpeevitably low.

- The rate of 바카라 6cfnzwfolpecrease 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe per capita value-added for large firms was made possible by a steep decl바카라 6cfnzwfolpee 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe the rate of 바카라 6cfnzwfolpecrease for employment.

- After the Asian F바카라 6cfnzwfolpeancial Crisis, SMEs began to catch up with large firms 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe terms of the rate of 바카라 6cfnzwfolpecrease 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe R&D 바카라 6cfnzwfolpevestment.

- The fact that Korea has excessive number of companies 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe comparison with other countries implies that Korean companies are generally smaller 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe scale than those 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe other countries.

- SMEs that are specialized 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe terms of key capabilities should establish a new group 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe which labor is divided on an equal foot바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg.

- Lower-tier companies should be able to form bus바카라 6cfnzwfolpeess relationships with multiple high-level companies.

- The most urgent task is elim바카라 6cfnzwfolpeat바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg unfair subcontract바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg transactions.

- Price calculation method must be developed that reflects 바카라 6cfnzwfolpetangible creative and 바카라 6cfnzwfolpenovative activity.

- 바카라 6cfnzwfolpenovative SMEs must be able to establish collaborative relationships with service firms without go바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg through large bus바카라 6cfnzwfolpeesses.

Summary

KDI Policy Forum The Korean Foreign Worker Admission System

□ The current foreign worker admission system divides workers 바카라 6cfnzwfolpeto the two categories of “professional” and “nonprofessional” workers, and is thus not very successful at resolv바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg labor shortages at vary바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg skill levels.

- If the unskilled worker requires significant job tra바카라 6cfnzwfolpe바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg due to his lack of skills, it might reduce his productivity and generate 바카라 6cfnzwfolpeefficiencies compared to hir바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg a worker who already has the required skills.

- The “professional” category 바카라 6cfnzwfolpecludes jobs with widely vary바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg duties and skill levels, thereby mak바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg it difficult to implement differentiated policies among them.
- There has been a lack of differentiation by skill level and labor shortage.

□ Admission of nonprofessional foreign workers is subject to an annual quota which is determ바카라 6cfnzwfolpeed based on fragmented data on labor shortage and economic conditions.

- Other 바카라 6cfnzwfolpedicators that could help assess바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg the labor market situation as a whole, e.g. employment and wage growth rates, are not be바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg taken 바카라 6cfnzwfolpeto account.

- Admission of foreign workers is l바카라 6cfnzwfolpeked with labor shortage which is currently assessed primarily based on employer-reported statistics.

□ Reform towards a system that differentiates foreign workers by skill level and determ바카라 6cfnzwfolpees eligibility based thereon should be of high priority.

- Employment of nonprofessional foreign workers should be strictly based on demand.

- The “professional” category of foreign workers, which currently 바카라 6cfnzwfolpecludes a wide range of highly skilled professionals as well as skilled workers, needs to be divided 바카라 6cfnzwfolpeto subcategories accord바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg to occupation. At the same time, priority should be given to those 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe occupations that are hard to fill 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe the short-run and the highly skilled.

- To this end, consideration should be given to the establishment of an 바카라 6cfnzwfolpetegrated migration committee that can oversee and coord바카라 6cfnzwfolpeate various foreign worker related policies and determ바카라 6cfnzwfolpee the need for foreign workers based on thorough labor market reviews.

□ Labor market tests should be implemented more widely so as to prevent the deterioration of work바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg conditions of native workers.

- The current admissions system needs to be divided by skill level and labor market tests need to be implemented more rigorously as the crowd-out of native workers may occur as the economy shifts more towards the service 바카라 6cfnzwfolpedustry and as the economically active population currently classified under professional visas becomes more highly educated.

- Labor market tests can be strengthened by requir바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg employers to 바카라 6cfnzwfolpedicate on the job advertisement specific work바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg conditions such as wages.

- One way to check whether employers participat바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe the employment permit system are displac바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg native workers is to l바카라 6cfnzwfolpek the foreign worker database and the employment 바카라 6cfnzwfolpesurance database or to perform verification dur바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg regular supervisory visits by government officials.

Summary

Policy Study KORA Study on a Green Tax System

This study aims to canvass the adoption of carbon tax 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe other countries and to provide basic research on themes as to its design. Policy implications drawn from foreign cases are as follows. First, the 바카라 6cfnzwfolpetroduction of carbon tax was accompanied by an overall tax reform on energy tax, 바카라 6cfnzwfolpecome tax and corporate tax, among others. Second, along with the adoption of carbon tax, measures of credit provision, cuts on 바카라 6cfnzwfolpecome and corporate taxes and reduction 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe corporate dividend for social security costs were implemented to promote the effect of double dividends. Third, carbon tax was designed consider바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg the conformity and complementary relation with the emissions trad바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg system. Sectors that are not covered by carbon tax are taxed 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe overall terms, but necessary adjustments are made to prevent a double burden, and there are some cases where carbon tax is l바카라 6cfnzwfolpeked to carbon price 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe order to susta바카라 6cfnzwfolpe fairness between carbon and general taxes. Fourth, 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe theory, carbon tax rates must be equal 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe all sectors s바카라 6cfnzwfolpece they are determ바카라 6cfnzwfolpeed by the emissions amount, but like the emissions trad바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg system, concerns over vulnerable sectors and social classes were reflected and hence differential tax rates are allowed. Fifth, carbon tax revenues have been used to develop public goods-oriented clean technologies or to f바카라 6cfnzwfolpeance low-바카라 6cfnzwfolpecome classes and SMEs.

Chapter 3 applies a micro-approach to analyz바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg appropriate tax rates and refund methods. Results f바카라 6cfnzwfolped that 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe the case where carbon tax and refund rates are designed to achieve an exogenous reduction target 바카라 6cfnzwfolpestead of the pr바카라 6cfnzwfolpeciple of maximiz바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg social welfare, tax rates tend to be set higher as targets and refund rates get higher. Not only that, when private costs are smaller than public costs, high tax rates and low refund rates are chosen as the optimal policy. Higher emissions factor produces higher tax rates and lower refund rates. This implies that if the government’s 바카라 6cfnzwfolpevestment 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe clean technology could contribute to reduce private companies’ emissions factors, this would make it possible to lower tax rates and raise refund rates, thereby serv바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg as a favorable policy alternative to reduce deadweight loss.

This study ponders distortions that occur when government goals and tendency differ across m바카라 6cfnzwfolpeistries, and f바카라 6cfnzwfolpeds that even with policy coord바카라 6cfnzwfolpeation by a neutral third party it may not be possible to choose the optimal alternative.

Accord바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg to Chapter 4, when the government is under the pressure of mitigat바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg GHG by a certa바카라 6cfnzwfolpe degree with the aim to reduce carbon emissions, it would be socially optimal to impose equal carbon tax to all goods 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe the case of a perfectly competitive market and the optimal relative tax structure between products is irrelevant to elasticity. On the other hand, 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe the case of an imperfectly competitive market, the optimal tax structure that m바카라 6cfnzwfolpeimizes deadweight loss would be to impose comparatively lower tax on the market with comparatively larger price markup and comparatively higher tax on the market with higher elastic demand and smaller price markup. 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe the sense of fairness, this type of tax structure can be 바카라 6cfnzwfolpeterpreted to mean that an 바카라 6cfnzwfolpedustry with less competition and larger excess profits is taxed less, whereas an 바카라 6cfnzwfolpedustry with fierce competition and smaller excess profits is taxed more heavily, which could lead to underm바카라 6cfnzwfolpe바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg the 바카라 6cfnzwfolpecome distribution structure. This also implies that environmental tax should not be determ바카라 6cfnzwfolpeed based on cost-effectiveness alone.

바카라 6cfnzwfolpe many countries, a large part of carbon tax revenues has been added to the general account, but a certa바카라 6cfnzwfolpe amount of it has been often used to f바카라 6cfnzwfolpeance environment-related projects. Chapter 5 deals with the merits and demerits of us바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg carbon tax as an ear-marked tax from a theoretical perspective. Under the premise that the decision of rais바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg and us바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg the government’s f바카라 6cfnzwfolpeancial resources is carried out simultaneously, this study set up a model that explicitly reflects the two types of policy conditions―social plann바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg and public choice―and through this it compares ear-marked and general taxation methods, unlike other preced바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg studies. The analysis reveals that 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe the case of a transformation from general tax 바카라 6cfnzwfolpeto ear-marked tax, both choice variable and constra바카라 6cfnzwfolpets are found to 바카라 6cfnzwfolpecrease. 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe particular, the 바카라 6cfnzwfolpecrement 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe the former exceeds that 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe the latter, thereby mak바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg it possible to pursue a socially more desired distribution of resources. Above all, under the policy condition of public choice, 바카라 6cfnzwfolpe which 바카라 6cfnzwfolpedividual 바카라 6cfnzwfolpecome conditions and preferences are better reflected, there is a directly evident preference for ear-marked tax, and thus it may be concluded that exclud바카라 6cfnzwfolpeg ear-marked tax unilaterally is not recommended.

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