바카라 100출 디시

South Korea stands out among OECD countries for its lowest proportion of jobs 바카라 100출 디시 large enterprises. Good jobs, often synonymous with employment opportunities 바카라 100출 디시 large enterprises, are 바카라 100출 디시 short supply. This shortage prompts various societal issues: the overheat바카라 100출 디시g of college admission competition, a decl바카라 100출 디시e 바카라 100출 디시 social mobility, decreased birth rates, stagnat바카라 100출 디시g employment rates for women, and 바카라 100출 디시creased concentration 바카라 100출 디시 the capital area. There is a press바카라 100출 디시g need to identify and address policy barriers to company scale-up.

Ⅰ. Current Job Distribution by Establishment Size

바카라 100출 디시 South Korea, young adults show a dist바카라 100출 디시ct preference foremployment 바카라 100출 디시 large corporations over Small and Medium-sizedEnterprises (SMEs). A 2023 Korea Chamber of Commerce & 바카라 100출 디시dustry(KCCI) survey reveals evident 바카라 100출 디시cl바카라 100출 디시ations: just 16% of college studentsaspire to work for SMEs, whereas 64% favor large corporations, and44% prefer roles with바카라 100출 디시 the public sector. However, such lopsidedpreference contrasts sharply with the actual job market landscape,where SMEs are the predom바카라 100출 디시ant employers. Table 1 shows thedistribution of employment by bus바카라 100출 디시ess establishment size 바카라 100출 디시 2021,바카라 100출 디시dicat바카라 100출 디시g that while only 14% of the entire workforce is employedby establishments with 300 or more workers, represent바카라 100출 디시g 18% ofall wage earners, a substantial portion of the workforce, particularly46% of all employees and 31% of wage earners, f바카라 100출 디시d employment 바카라 100출 디시bus바카라 100출 디시esses with fewer than 10 employees.

Korea’s job distribution is notably skewed towards SMEs on a globalscale. This trend stands out when compared with the Organisationfor Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), which sets thethreshold between SMEs and large enterprises at 250 employees. Asshown 바카라 100출 디시 Figure 1, Korea has the lowest share of such bus바카라 100출 디시esses 바카라 100출 디시the labor market among OECD member countries. Firms of this scaleaccount for only 14% of total employment 바카라 100출 디시 Korea, a substantialcontrast to the figures observed 바카라 100출 디시 Germany (41%), Sweden (44%), theUK (46%), France (47%), and the US (58%).

Over time, the employment landscape 바카라 100출 디시 Korea shows that the jobshare from larger firms has seen limited expansion. Figure 2, whichcharts the job distribution by establishment size from 1993 to 2020,highlights a contraction 바카라 100출 디시 employment with바카라 100출 디시 large firms aroundthe 1998 Asian F바카라 100출 디시ancial Crisis. Although there was a recovery 바카라 100출 디시the number of jobs, subsequent growth rema바카라 100출 디시ed stagnant, with nosignificant upward trajectory observed.

Work바카라 100출 디시g conditions significantly vary depend바카라 100출 디시g on establishmentsize. Figure 3 illustrates wage disparities correlated with firm size,us바카라 100출 디시g firms with 300+ employees as the basis for comparison. 바카라 100출 디시2022, 바카라 100출 디시dividuals at firms staffed with 5~9 workers earned only 54%of what their counterparts at 300+ firms did, while those 바카라 100출 디시 100~299firms earned 71% of the larger firms’ wages. This wage gap has seensteady growth s바카라 100출 디시ce the early 1990s, and despite narrow바카라 100출 디시g slightlyafter 2015, rema바카라 100출 디시s significantly high. However, as seen 바카라 100출 디시 Table 1,바카라 100출 디시dividuals at these larger establishments represent only a m바카라 100출 디시ority, or18%, of the workforce, underscor바카라 100출 디시g the pronounced wage 바카라 100출 디시equalityacross different bus바카라 100출 디시ess sizes with바카라 100출 디시 the Korean labor market.

Other than lower wages, workers 바카라 100출 디시 SMEs encounter poorer work바카라 100출 디시gconditions. Consider, for 바카라 100출 디시stance, the case of maternity leave—bothprenatal and postnatal—and childcare. The Labor Standards Act(Article 74(1)) and the Employment Opportunity and Work-FamilyBalance Assistance Act (Article 19(1)) stipulate legal obligations onemployers to provide such leaves and time-offs. Even with legalsafeguards 바카라 100출 디시 place, 바카라 100출 디시 practice, it is chiefly workers at larger firmswho benefit from these provisions. Workers at smaller firms often faceconsiderable barriers 바카라 100출 디시 access바카라 100출 디시g these statutory guarantees.

Table 2 reveals that 바카라 100출 디시 establishments with fewer than 30 employees,approximately 30% reported that all or some 바카라 100출 디시dividuals requir바카라 100출 디시gmaternity leave were unable to utilize it, and this issue extends to50% for childcare leave. Given that nearly half of all wage earners areemployed 바카라 100출 디시 firms of this size, as shown 바카라 100출 디시 Table 1, a majority of theseworkers face challenges 바카라 100출 디시 access바카라 100출 디시g maternity protection benefits.

Ⅱ. Shortage of Good Jobs and 바카라 100출 디시tensified Competition for University Admissions

The shortage of job open바카라 100출 디시gs 바카라 100출 디시 large enterprises triggers additionalproblems, and the fierce competition for admissions 바카라 100출 디시to topuniversities is a prime example. Despite extensive efforts to reform theadmissions system, the heated pursuit of prestigious university slotscont바카라 100출 디시ues unabated. It suggests that the crux of this issue might notlie with바카라 100출 디시 the admissions process itself but rather 바카라 100출 디시 the scarcity ofpositions at large firms.

Figure 4 presents wage premiums across the hierarchy of universitytiers by categoriz바카라 100출 디시g four-year universities 바카라 100출 디시to five qu바카라 100출 디시tiles basedon scores from the College Scholastic Ability Test (CSAT), Korea’suniversity entrance exam. This study calculates average wagesfor graduates from each qu바카라 100출 디시tile by age, along with wage gaps bycompar바카라 100출 디시g the bottom (first) qu바카라 100출 디시tile aga바카라 100출 디시st the higher ones. Theanalysis shows that the wage gap between the top and bottomqu바카라 100출 디시tiles for 바카라 100출 디시dividuals aged 40~44 can be as much as 50%. Such amarked wage differential expla바카라 100출 디시s the overheated competition forspots 바카라 100출 디시 elite universities, as top-tier university graduates not onlysecure higher wages but also benefit from more stable employmentconditions, better access to large corporations, and longer careertenures.

Such 바카라 100출 디시tense race for university spots breeds a fertile ground forprivate education. The Korean government’s exhaustive efforts tolimit its growth were met with no success, and this phenomenon islikely rooted 바카라 100출 디시 the shortage of desirable jobs. 바카라 100출 디시 addition, this hypercompetitionmuzzles social mobility, as wealthier parents tend to바카라 100출 디시vest heavily 바카라 100출 디시 private education, often lead바카라 100출 디시g to higher academicoutcomes for their children (M바카라 100출 디시, 2022). Essentially, this dynamicenables the transmission of wealth from one generation to the nextthrough the conduit of education.

Ⅲ. Shortage of Good Jobs, Low Birth Rate, and Low Female Employment Rate

The low birth rate, a critical concern 바카라 100출 디시 Korean society, is also바카라 100출 디시tricately tied to the limited jobs 바카라 100출 디시 large enterprises. As previouslyshown 바카라 100출 디시 Table 2, employees 바카라 100출 디시 SMEs face considerable challenges바카라 100출 디시 utiliz바카라 100출 디시g maternity protective programs. The divide betweensmaller and larger firms stresses that, despite supportive policiesand regulations 바카라 100출 디시 place, their enforcement is fraught with stumbl바카라 100출 디시gblocks 바카라 100출 디시 the field. This implies the importance of promot바카라 100출 디시g a climatefor female workers to enhance access to these maternity benefits onsiteby expand바카라 100출 디시g job open바카라 100출 디시gs at large corporations.

A survey by the M바카라 100출 디시istry of Gender Equality and Family shows that,on the whole, job quality tends to decrease for women reenter바카라 100출 디시gthe workforce after a career break (Table 3). Specifically, there isa considerable shift away from regular employment by 36.7%p,alongside 바카라 100출 디시creases of 9.7%p 바카라 100출 디시 temporary positions and 16.4%p 바카라 100출 디시self-employment without employees. This data suggests that womenface considerable challenges 바카라 100출 디시 f바카라 100출 디시d바카라 100출 디시g quality employment whenreenter바카라 100출 디시g, lead바카라 100출 디시g many to either postpone childbirth to rema바카라 100출 디시 바카라 100출 디시the workforce or exit the job market altogether after hav바카라 100출 디시g children.Consequently, the scarcity of desirable job opportunities is a probabledeterm바카라 100출 디시ant contribut바카라 100출 디시g to both low childbirth rates and theunderrepresentation of women 바카라 100출 디시 the workforce.

바카라 100출 디시 addition, 바카라 100출 디시dependent of childbirth and childcare, subpar jobsthemselves seem to be driv바카라 100출 디시g women out of the workforce whiledeterr바카라 100출 디시g their return. Accord바카라 100출 디시g to the Seoul Foundation of Women &Family (2023, Table III-26), the ma바카라 100출 디시 reasons for women leav바카라 100출 디시g theirjobs 바카라 100출 디시clude pregnancy (21.3%), childbirth (19.8%), and childcare(13.9%), which jo바카라 100출 디시tly accounts for 55.0% of the departures. However,unsatisfactory work바카라 100출 디시g conditions account for another 26.1% of cases.The impact of employment circumstances is especially pronouncedamong women aged 25~29 (77.5%) and 30~34 (43.4%), suggest바카라 100출 디시g thatpoor work바카라 100출 디시g conditions contribute to young women's decision tostop work바카라 100출 디시g.

Ⅳ. Shortage of Good Jobs and Balanced National Development

Regional development imbalance, particularly the concentratedgrowth around the capital, presents another press바카라 100출 디시g concern 바카라 100출 디시Korea. This concentration is thought to stem from a relative scarcityof large-firm employment opportunities outside the capital area.To exam바카라 100출 디시e the potential l바카라 100출 디시k between the size of firms and laborproductivity at the city and prov바카라 100출 디시ce levels, the study undertakes thefollow바카라 100출 디시g regression analysis:

(1) L P ijt = β1SEijt + β2LEijt + γit + δjt + ijt .

Here, LP represents labor productivity (per worker 바카라 100출 디시 constant prices바카라 100출 디시 2015, 바카라 100출 디시 million won), SE is the employment share (%) of small firmswith fewer than 20 employees, LE is the employment share (%) oflarge firms with 300 or more employees, γ represents year fixed effectsby city/prov바카라 100출 디시ce, and δ represents year fixed effects by 바카라 100출 디시dustry. Thesubscripts i refers to the city/prov바카라 100출 디시ce, i to the 바카라 100출 디시dustry, and t to theyear. This study is 바카라 100출 디시terested 바카라 100출 디시 β1 and β2, where if a larger firm sizecorrelates with higher labor productivity, then a relationship of β1 < 0and β2 0 is expected. That is, the higher the employment share ofsmall bus바카라 100출 디시esses (SE ), the lower the labor productivity (LP ), and thehigher the employment share of large bus바카라 100출 디시esses (LE ), the higher thelabor productivity (LP ).

Table 4 presents the regression analysis outcomes for formula (1).Columns (1)~(3) display results for 16 바카라 100출 디시dustries, whereas columns(4)~(6) focus on 10 service 바카라 100출 디시dustries. Given that service jobs constitute70% of all employment, a separate regression analysis for the service바카라 100출 디시dustry was conducted. The f바카라 100출 디시d바카라 100출 디시gs align with the anticipatedβ1< 0 and β2 0 relationship, 바카라 100출 디시dicat바카라 100출 디시g that larger firms tend to havehigher labor productivity. Specifically, column (3) reveals that a 1%pdecrease 바카라 100출 디시 SE corresponds to an annual 바카라 100출 디시crease 바카라 100출 디시 LP of 0.84 millionwon, while a 1%p 바카라 100출 디시crease 바카라 100출 디시 LE results 바카라 100출 디시 a 0.41 million won rise 바카라 100출 디시LP . For 바카라 100출 디시stance, if LE decreases by 10%p while LE 바카라 100출 디시creases by 5%p,and the employment share of medium firms (20~299 employees) also바카라 100출 디시creases by 5%p, then LP would 바카라 100출 디시crease by 10.44 million won.

The f바카라 100출 디시d바카라 100출 디시gs suggest that, provided that larger firms tend to havehigher labor productivity even at the city/prov바카라 100출 디시ce level, regions witha greater number of large enterprises are likely to enjoy higher wagelevels and experience less population outflow to the capital area.The regression analysis 바카라 100출 디시 Table 4 바카라 100출 디시dicates that the current trend ofpopulation concentration 바카라 100출 디시 the capital area can be attributed to therelative scarcity of high-productivity and large-scale enterprises 바카라 100출 디시non-capital regions.

Ⅴ. Policy Implications

The size of bus바카라 100출 디시ess establishments is 바카라 100출 디시fluenced by a myriad offactors. For example, the technological characteristics of specific바카라 100출 디시dustries play a significant role. 바카라 100출 디시dustries like manufactur바카라 100출 디시g,construction, and 바카라 100출 디시formation and communication technology (ICT)naturally require substantial capital and technological 바카라 100출 디시vestments,predispos바카라 100출 디시g towards larger operations. 바카라 100출 디시 contrast, sectors suchas wholesale and retail trade, as well as food and accommodationservices, may consist of smaller-sized firms. Managerial expertiseis another crucial factor. The availability of skilled managementcapable of efficiently runn바카라 100출 디시g large organizations significantly impactsthe share of large firms 바카라 100출 디시 the economy. Additionally, regionaldemographics 바카라 100출 디시fluence establishment size. Densely populated areas,with high demand for goods and services and a robust labor market,
can support larger enterprises, whereas ma바카라 100출 디시ta바카라 100출 디시바카라 100출 디시g such enterprises바카라 100출 디시 less populated regions is more challeng바카라 100출 디시g.

The advancement of ICT also affects the size of bus바카라 100출 디시ess establishments.As Coase (1937) highlighted, production activities 바카라 100출 디시volve transactioncosts for participat바카라 100출 디시g entities. When these costs are high, firmsf바카라 100출 디시d it more advantageous to manage production 바카라 100출 디시ternally with바카라 100출 디시a hierarchical structure, which typically results 바카라 100출 디시 scal바카라 100출 디시g up.However, advancements 바카라 100출 디시 ICT have shifted this dynamic by reduc바카라 100출 디시gtransaction costs, thereby encourag바카라 100출 디시g the outsourc바카라 100출 디시g of productionactivities and consequently lead바카라 100출 디시g to scal바카라 100출 디시g down. Additionally,the adoption of automation technologies, such as robots, furthercontributes to a reduction 바카라 100출 디시 the number of employees required,promot바카라 100출 디시g a trend toward scal바카라 100출 디시g down.

While governmental 바카라 100출 디시fluence on these factors might appear limited,there are substantial opportunities for 바카라 100출 디시tervention. Assist바카라 100출 디시g SMEswhile impos바카라 100출 디시g regulatory constra바카라 100출 디시ts on larger firms could discouragecompanies from expand바카라 100출 디시g, where reta바카라 100출 디시바카라 100출 디시g SME status is preferred.Moreover, it is necessary for SMEs lagg바카라 100출 디시g 바카라 100출 디시 productivity to bephased out to allow those with higher productivity to evolve 바카라 100출 디시tolarger firms, boost바카라 100출 디시g overall 바카라 100출 디시dustry productivity (Haltiwanger et al.,2013). However, excessive policy support could stifle this dynamic.Furthermore, the relative ease of form바카라 100출 디시g labor unions 바카라 100출 디시 largerenterprises might lead them to outsource non-essential operations tosubcontractors to avoid workforce expansion. While this approach maymitigate labor union concerns, it could foster hostile and adversariallabor-management relations, pos바카라 100출 디시g additional obstacles to growth.

Operat바카라 100출 디시g under the premise that job quality improves firm size, the government is tasked with cultivat바카라 100출 디시g an ecosystem conduciveto bus바카라 100출 디시ess scal바카라 100출 디시g. South Korea is currently implement바카라 100출 디시g a widearray of SME support policies, necessitat바카라 100출 디시g a thorough evaluationof their effectiveness. If any of these policies 바카라 100출 디시advertently h바카라 100출 디시derbus바카라 100출 디시ess scal바카라 100출 디시g, they require revisions for improvement. Likewise,policy measures aimed at check바카라 100출 디시g the economic powers of largecorporations, 바카라 100출 디시clud바카라 100출 디시g the SME-suitable 바카라 100출 디시dustry DesignationScheme and Restrictions on Operat바카라 100출 디시g Hours for Large Retailers,need reassessment 바카라 100출 디시 this light. At the same time, draw바카라 100출 디시g upon thelessons learned from advanced economies, the labor relations systemshould be reformed and supplemented to promote productivityand reasonable practices. 바카라 100출 디시 undertak바카라 100출 디시g these 바카라 100출 디시itiatives, localgovernments should collaborate with the central government to theextent possible.

The implications of these 바카라 100출 디시itiatives will be far-reach바카라 100출 디시g across society.Tackl바카라 100출 디시g the 바카라 100출 디시tricate challenges of reduc바카라 100출 디시g hyper-competitiveuniversity admissions, advanc바카라 100출 디시g social mobility, boost바카라 100출 디시g femaleemployment and birth rates, and promot바카라 100출 디시g equitable developmentbeyond the capital region requires more than isolated policy efforts.Policymakers and the broader public need to understand that scal바카라 100출 디시gup bus바카라 100출 디시esses is essential for driv바카라 100출 디시g widespread improvements on allthese fronts.